{"id":793,"date":"2024-05-25T16:47:07","date_gmt":"2024-05-25T16:47:07","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/prisonlife.rs\/en\/?p=793"},"modified":"2024-06-04T16:50:40","modified_gmt":"2024-06-04T16:50:40","slug":"criminal-behavior-and-fertility-ultimate-and-proximate-explanations","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/prisonlife.rs\/en\/criminal-behavior-and-fertility-ultimate-and-proximate-explanations\/","title":{"rendered":"Criminal behavior and fertility: Ultimate and proximate explanations"},"content":{"rendered":"

It may sound puzzling and unusual to ask about the associations between criminal behavior and number of children one has. But in fact, it does not have to be so for evolutionary social scientists. Evolutionary psychologists and human behavioral ecologists could assume that criminal behavior is an adaptive trait. These kinds of explanations are called ultimate because they rely on evolutionary processes like natural selection. More precisely, criminal behavior can be analyzed using the evolutionary biological conceptual framework labeled as Life History Theory<\/a>. This framework assumes that individuals that live in \u201charsh\u201d ecologies have specific pattern of adaptation which reflects on reproductive success as well (ecological harshness encompasses various environmental characteristics that increase mortality in a given population, e.g., poverty, stress, deprivation, hostility, pathogen load, etc.). Hence, natural selection in harsh environments may favorize individuals with earlier start of reproductive phase and earlier first reproduction, and having more offspring with diminished parental investment despite the possibility that this reproductive pattern is also related to shorter lifespan. Logic of the theory is apparent: in harsh environment it is not adaptive to delay reproduction because individuals risk death without producing offspring; furthermore, individuals cannot invest in offspring because these ecologies lack resources and therefore, the adaptation is heavily relied on offspring quantity. This reproductive pattern is called \u201cfast\u201d while the opposite pattern represents \u201cslow\u201d life history: delayed first reproduction, fewer offspring with elevated parental care, and higher longevity. Indeed, various empirical research in humans confirm this hypothesis<\/a>: environmental conditions like lower socio-economic status, diminished housing quality, deprived environments, and dysfunctional families in childhood predict earlier first reproduction and higher number of children. Behavioral characteristics associated with fast life history belong to the fast Pace Of Life (POL)<\/a>; typical fast POL behaviors are aggressiveness, impulsiveness, and boldness. Individuals who express criminal behavior indeed more frequently originate from harsh environments characterized by poverty<\/a> and dysfunctional family relations<\/a>, and they are also characterized by personality traits like impulsivity and aggressiveness<\/a>. Therefore, it is not surprising that some authors assumed that criminal behavior is associated with fast life history as well<\/a>. There are some empirical data that confirm this hypothesis: the findings from Sweden\u2019s total population<\/a> (N=4849478) show positive association between criminal offending and fertility (number of children); furthermore, higher number of lawful sentences positively predicted reproductive success. Hence, within this theoretical framework, criminal behavior may be adaptive (in an evolutionary-biological sense) because it enables higher fertility.<\/p>\n

We tested this intriguing hypothesis using the data collected on the PrisonLIFE project. We conducted the analyses on the sample of 618 prisoners who were serving their sentences in several major prisons in Serbia (14.60% of female participants; Mage<\/sub>=39.75 years |SD=10.28|). The association between number of children and criminal behavior was the key target of our analysis. Criminal behavior was operationalized via total score on the Offender Assessment System<\/a>-based protocol (OAS) \u2013 it is an assessment of reoffending conducted for every prisoner by the penitentiary facility staff. OAS represents very comprehensive operationalization of criminal behavior because it encompasses various indicators like characteristics of criminal offending, personal history of criminal behavior, attitude toward offence, substance abuse, socially-destructive behavior and others. If we take a look at the correlation between criminal behavior and number of children (Sperman\u2019s coefficient of rank correlation was calculated because number of children is by definition a rank variable) we can observe small but statistically significant negative association (Figure 1). In order to provide stricter test of this association, we fitted Poisson\u2019s regression with number of children as a criterion measure while criminal behavior, together with participants\u2019 sex, age, and education were analyzed as the predictors (Figure 2). Once again, criminal behavior was significant predictor of fertility with a negative contribution to the prediction. Beside criminal behavior, significant predictors were age (positive) and education (negative); females reported higher average fertility than males as well. Analyzed predictors explained 36% of fertility\u2019s variation in this model.<\/p>\n

\"blog_may_2024_eng1\"<\/p>\n

Figure 1. Correlation between criminal behavior and fertility<\/em><\/p>\n

\"blog_may_2024_eng2\"<\/p>\n

Figure 2. Poisson\u2019s regression for the prediction of variation in fertility<\/em><\/p>\n

\n

Hence, our findings not only did not confirm the Life History-derived hypothesis \u2013 they are opposed to it. How can we explain the obtained association between criminal offending and fertility? In regard to ultimate explanations, firstly we must note the complexity of analyzed phenomena, both regarding to biological processes and physical and social environment. Every theory has its domain of application and this stands for Life History as well: it is possible that the link between harsh environment and reproductive outcomes is not relatively simple as assumed by this theory and that it depends from various characteristics of organisms and their socio-ecologies. Reproduction of contemporary humans is plastic, flexible, and partially intentional and consciously controlled; simple reproductive patterns labeled as \u201cfast\u201d and \u201cslow\u201d described by prototypical form of Life History Theory probably cannot even be found in contemporary human populations<\/a>. Furthermore, Life History Theory is not the only evolutionary conceptual framework that attempts to explain the association between harsh environment and reproduction. For example, the \u201csilver spoon\u201d hypothesis<\/a> is in contrast with Life History prediction: harsh environment may inflict negative consequences on somatic state of individuals, impairing physical (and perhaps mental) health, which consequently may reflect on fertility as well.<\/p>\n

Our data may be incongruent with Life History Theory but they are in line with many proximate explanations of the link between criminal behavior and fertility (proximate explanations are not based on evolutionary processes; they are focused on relatively \u201ccloser\u201d causal determinants of a phenomenon \u2013 in case of human behavior these could be physiological and morphological traits, developmental pathways, or environmental characteristics). Namely, various scholars empirically detected negative association between fertility and criminal offending<\/a> or similar behavioral patterns like antisocial personality disorder. This finding can be explained by substance abuse<\/a> or unemployment<\/a> \u2013 they both also negatively correlate with fertility (individuals often tend to achieve certain socio-economic status and intended level of salary before they have children, which is contrary to Life History Theory predictions). Finally, we should observe the following as well: our current data, similarly to many other (fortunately, not all) are based on cross-sectional design \u2013 the data on both criminal behavior and fertility are collected simultaneously. Hence, we cannot make conclusions about the causal links between explored variables: we cannot say whether criminal behavior causes lower fertility or it is vice versa. Furthermore, the latter causal direction is indeed plausible \u2013 there is data showing that starting a family and becoming a parent can help individuals to desist <\/em>from crime<\/a>. Leaning on these data scholars sometimes explicitly state that if states aspire to elevate fertility, one of the processes that can facilitate this is crime reduction and prevention. Finally, what this interesting association between criminal behavior and fertility can say to us, as evolutionary social scientists? We should always keep in mind that humans are very complex beings, both biologically and socially, and we should not overlook proximate causes of behavior \u2013 in fact, our research should aim to integrate ultimate and proximate process, and thus, lead to more comprehensive insight into human behavior.<\/p>\n

Janko Me\u0111edovi\u0107<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

References<\/strong><\/p>\n

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Basto-Pereira, M., Gouveia-Pereira, M., Pereira, C. R., Barrett, E. L., Lawler, S., Newton, N., … & Sakulku, J. (2022). The global impact of adverse childhood experiences on criminal behavior: A cross-continental study. Child abuse & neglect, 124<\/em>, 105459. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.chiabu.2021.105459<\/p>\n

Del Giudice, M., Gangestad, S. W., & Kaplan, H. S. (2015). Life history theory and evolutionary psychology. In D. M. Buss (Ed.), The handbook of evolutionary psychology \u2013 Vol 1: Foundations<\/em> (2nd ed., pp. 88\u2013114). Wiley.<\/p>\n

Ganser, B., Guzzo, K.B. (2023). Criminal offending trajectories during the transition to adulthood and subsequent fertility. In: Schoen, R. (eds) The Demography of Transforming Families. The Springer Series on Demographic Methods and Population Analysis<\/em>, 56, (pp. 255-278). Springer, Cham. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-031-29666-6_12<\/p>\n

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Huang, T., Chiang, T. F., & Pan, J. N. (2015). Fertility and crime: Evidence from spatial analysis of Taiwan. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 36<\/em>, 319-327. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10834-015-9440-9<\/p>\n

Jacobson, N. C. (2016). Current evolutionary adaptiveness of psychiatric disorders: Fertility rates, parent\u2212child relationship quality, and psychiatric disorders across the lifespan. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 125<\/em>(6), 824\u2013839. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/abn0000185<\/p>\n

Jarjoura, G. R., Triplett, R. A., & Brinker, G. P. (2002). Growing up poor: Examining the link between persistent childhood poverty and delinquency. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 18<\/em>, 159-187. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1023\/A:1015206715838<\/p>\n

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Kwiek, M., & Piotrowski, P. (2020). Do criminals live faster than soldiers and firefighters? A comparison of biodemographic and psychosocial dimensions of life history theory. Human nature, 31<\/em>(3), 272-295. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s12110-020-09374-5<\/p>\n

Lawson, D.W. (2011). Life History Theory and human reproductive behaviour. In: Swami, V. (ed.). Evolutionary Psychology: A Critical Introduction<\/em> (pp. 183\u2212214). Wiley-Blackwell.<\/p>\n

Me\u0111edovi\u0107, J. (2020). On the incongruence between psychometric and psychosocial-biodemographic measures of life history. Human Nature, 31<\/em>(3), 341-360. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s12110-020-09377-2<\/p>\n

Me\u0111edovi\u0107, J. (2023). Evolutionary Behavioral Ecology and Psychopathy<\/em>. Springer Nature.<\/p>\n

Me\u0111edovi\u0107, J. (2023a). Pace-of-Life Syndrome (POLS). In: Shackelford, T.K. (eds) Encyclopedia of Sexual Psychology and Behavior<\/em> (pp. 1-5). Springer. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-031-08956-5_1677-1<\/a><\/p>\n

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Ministarstvo Pravde: Uprava za izvr\u0161enje krivi\u010dnih sankcija. (2013a). Priru\u010dnik za primenu instrumenta za procenu rizika preko tri godine<\/em>. Ministarstvo Pravde, Republika Srbija.<\/p>\n

Vuji\u010di\u0107, N., & Kari\u0107, T. (2020). Procena rizika i napredovanje u tretmanu u Kazneno-popravnom zavodu u Sremskoj Mitrovici. Anali Pravnog fakulteta u Beogradu, 68<\/em>(1), 164-185. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5937\/AnaliPFB2001170V<\/p>\n

Yao, S., L\u00e5ngstr\u00f6m, N., Temrin, H., & Walum, H. (2014). Criminal offending as part of an alternative reproductive strategy: Investigating evolutionary hypotheses using Swedish total population data. Evolution and Human Behavior, 35<\/em>(6), 481-488. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.evolhumbehav.2014.06.007<\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

It may sound puzzling and unusual to ask about the associations between criminal behavior and number of children one has. 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