Convicted persons face numerous deprivations and difficulties in prison. That is why the state is obliged to enable the development of every individual who finds himself/herself in a closed institution and to support his/her reintegration after release. It is precisely in this context that it is necessary to observe not only the material conditions for life in prison but also other dimensions of prison life, especially social contacts, access to education, professional training, work, free activities, etc. – thus, not as conveniences, but as basic rights of persons deprived of liberty. Respecting these rights in practice requires prior recognition of deprivations and then the needs and demands of convicted persons during their stay in prison. At the same time, as emphasized in the United Nations Rules for the Treatment of Women Prisoners and Non-custodial Measures for Women Offenders (the so-called Bangkok Rules), women in prison are a particularly vulnerable category, so they have special needs and requirements compared to the male prison population.
Photography 1: Penal-correctional institution for women in Požarevac. Author: Ana Batrićević. The photograph was made for the purpose of research about the greening of prison communities, the results of which were published in the book: Pavićević, O. Ilijić, Lj., & Batrićević, A. (2020). Susret društvenog i biološkog ozelenjavanje zatvorskih zajednica. Belgrade: Institute of Criminological and Sociological Research.
Vulnerability of women in prison and their needs
The special needs and requirements of imprisoned women are directly related to the specificities of women’s crime, on the one hand, and the position of women in society, on the other. In this regard, research points to three forms of women’s vulnerability: individual vulnerability, which is primarily associated with low self-esteem and self-worth, psychological problems and addictive behaviours, especially related to the abuse of drugs, alcohol and medicines; social vulnerability, which arises from the position of women in society, and is linked to a lower level of education, (un)employment and financial/economic independence, but also social marginalization and stigmatization, especially in the context of patriarchal gender socialization, and relational vulnerability, which refers to women’s vulnerability in the context of family and partner relationships (in terms of women’s exposure to violence) and the absence of social contacts and empathic relationships with others, which results in the absence of support before, during and after the prison sentence.
Taking that as a starting point, the specific needs of women in prison can be seen primarily through the dimensions of health (physical, mental and reproductive), motherhood, and previous experience of victimization by violence, and social contacts and support. When it comes to women’s health, it is noted that the rate of mental illnesses/disorders, is significantly higher in the female convict population than in the general female population: a study conducted in the state of New South Wales in Australia showed that 30% of female convicts serving a prison sentence suffers from a severe form of depression.[1] Mental health is often associated with the previous experience of a woman’s long-term victimization by partner violence or with the experience of some other form of gender-based violence (for example, sexual abuse, trafficking in women, etc.). The special needs of female convicts arise from the fact that a large number of them have problems with addictive behaviours, primarily with addiction to psychoactive substances and alcohol: the rate of substance addiction is higher among female convicts than among male convicts, while the probability of addiction is even 10 times higher in the population of female convicts than in women in the general population. Directly related to addictive behaviours, but also previous sexual victimization, is the fact that convicts often have problems with hepatitis C, sexually transmitted diseases, or are infected with HIV. In addition, women have specific health (gynaecological) needs related to reproductive health.
Most female convicts have a history of previous psychological, physical and sexual violence, and women often commit crimes against their abusers.[2] This suggests a need to provide a safe space in prison, where through appropriate forms of assistance and support, understanding and non-judgment, women will be empowered to overcome trauma and recover from the consequences of victimization. In addition, work aimed at strengthening the capacity of female convicts to recognize violence, victimization and psychological processes in themselves and others related to violence and reacting to it in a constructive way is also needed.
Separation from home and physical and psychological separation from children and family is certainly the most difficult psychological consequence of imprisonment for women, i.e. the most difficult type of prison deprivation (deprivation of motherhood). Women are most often the sole or primary caregivers of children, often single mothers. Staying in prison makes it impossible for women to fulfil their role as mothers, to take care of the child/children, their development, upbringing and education. A recent study conducted in the Correctional Institution for Women in Požarevac showed that female convicts lack contact with children and parents the most and that they see parents and children as the main sources of support during their sentence. That is why one of the key needs of female convicts is the need for regular contact with children and family, although the desire for constant contact and being with the children is not diminished even by visits or telephone conversations. However, visits are often difficult, mainly due to financial problems and generally the long distance of the prison from the place where the convict’s family and/or children live. Finally, female convicts often have a need for additional parenting skills, but also the acquisition of other knowledge and skills that will enable easier inclusion after release.
A gender-sensitive approach to women in prison
Recognizing the needs of convicted women and understanding their overall position, empowerment and support during and after the prison sentence are of key importance for their post-release reintegration and social inclusion. This, among other things, requires a gender-sensitive approach to female convicts during their prison sentences. Gender-specific treatment in prison implies that gender roles and women’s socialization are taken into account, that women are empowered and supported in their active role, and that in working with convicts, special attention is paid to specific women’s problems, especially previous victimization by violence, parental skills, mechanisms of reaction to different life situations, self-evaluation and self-esteem. Therefore, gender-specific programs for women in prison should cover different aspects of women’s lives before, during and after prison, use different methods and techniques in working with women convicts and be developed and implemented with respect for basic feminist principles and principles of positive criminology and victimology.[3]
Prof. dr Sanja Ćopić
[1] Mallicoat, S. (2012). Women and Crime: A Text/Reader, SAGE Text/Reader Series in Criminology and Criminal Justic Mallicoat, S. (2012). Women and Crime: A Text/Reader, SAGE Text/Reader Series in Criminology and Criminal Justice..
[2] Nikolić-Ristanović, V. (2000). Od žrtve do zatvorenice – nasilje u porodici i kriminalitet žena. Beograd: Viktimološko društvo Srbije i Prometej-Beograd.
[3] Nikolić-Ristanović, V., & Ćopić, S. (2015). Programs for female prisoners and positive criminology and victimology: the case of Serbia. In N. Ronel, & D. Segev (Eds.), Positive Criminology (pp. 319-338). Oxon, New York: Routledge.